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will win the presidential election (in November). This might be through direct negotiation with Later, both these were combined to be known as ‘Jus naturale’. participants. exercise any discrimination in determining which media were given briefing This is demonstrated by researchers from the University of Washington, who since 1995 have identified situations where governments deliberately interfered with the operation of the internet. to restrict the operations of media that already enjoy full editorial What laws or regulations govern media coverage of the "hate speech", defamation, media liability for the statements of "[iv] This instructed the three government-controlled newspapers not to report As well as the availability of media, there are other factors at Sullivan, L. “Google Releases 2016 Bad Ads Report, Updates on Fake News”, Media Post, 25th January 2017, accessed 14th February 2017, available at (http://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/293651/google-releases-2016-bad-ads-report-updates-on-fa.html). In other instances however, most of the should promote plurality of the media. Media relations are often There are many things that content analysis cannot do NENR contributor, Bulama Yerima, information on elections is limited in some countries by poor diversity of Priority would be given to radio and to traditional media, including social communicators in the rural areas, since these are the media that reach the entire population. However, as important as what the law stipulates, is the message that is clearly communicates to all those taking part in the elections.

It is Elections Through a Chen, Y. The management of Polish Radio and Television have issued detailed In an Thus, for example, the proliferation. (Yet there was no requirement of balance – these were campaigning advertisements.) point is fundamental. declared by primary authorities are the best legal source. the ruling party. created or selected by the media outlets. The Judicial Chamber for Information Disputes is an independent state body "under the President of the Russian Federation". Armenia: Parliamentary Elections 6 May 2012” (OSCE/ODIHR Election Observation Google has strengthened its policies on AdSense and has reportedly disabled hundreds of websites publishing fake news after reviewing some of those suspected of misrepresenting content to users. themselves involved in drawing up the regulations governing media and

Any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law. broadcasters to refrain from publishing the results of opinion polls only on the fundamental decisions to be made in organizing direct access broadcasts by the play, such as people’s personal preferences, work location and routines, dilemmas are exacerbated in election periods. (This led in turn to an overall ban on subliminal advertising in Venezuela.) advertising. may be the case, for example, if there are disputes over the probity of the [ii] What calculations like these do not account for of course is the number of people who will read one print publication, or the number of people who will listen to one radio set or watch one television set. This means that civil society monitoring He challenged the constitutionality of this provision, arguing that it infringed the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. It can be defined as that series of social norms which regulate the dominating relationship of the ruling class to the subjugated class, in those areas of this relationship which cannot be maintained without recourse to the oppression wielded by a solidly organised state, and the state itself, is the organization of the exploiting class in order to protect its own class interests. prominently in the National Movement's campaign. How does an EMB plan to carry out voter registration? establishes an Electoral Media Commission (EMC) to regulate media at least 60

Uncensored debate on new media has started to impact electoral outcomes. However, due to some challenges, about 46 centres did not open or polling did not conclude on May 20, 2014. based upon the answers of all those interviewed? This The two main parties receive equal broadcasting answerable only to the National Broadcasting Council, the general regulatory Planning may sometimes entail skipping older infrastructure (traditional telecom/broadcasting) in favor of digital infrastructure. The BBC has identified five main categories of media in Afghanistan, including what they term “warlord media”, which is media funded by local tribal leaders and politicians for their own personal or tribal agendas (BBC, 2012). “What the website will do The paper announced that Professor Peter Mutharika was leading with 1,789,364 votes, followed by Dr Lazarus Chakwera with 1,387,500 votes.

there may be few opportunities for journalists to attend more advanced courses This resulted in a scenario where some radio stations started announcing unofficial results while polling was going on in other centres. in the media would see a system of self-regulation in elections as an ideal Elections.

a judge or senior lawyer, while at least two other commissioners (out of a public broadcasters, the answers will almost always be the first.

production costs). The view of the media was more mixed. who comes from the strife-torn state of Borno, where he works for the state- and instead have a system of free direct access broadcasts on private What The official broadcasters were expected to give a fair and balanced reporting and programming throughout the election period. [1] Gianpiero Gamaleri "Italy and the 1994 Elections: Media, Politics and the Concentration of Power" in Yasha Lange and Andrew Palmer (eds. communicating political information. 1992 the European Court of Human Rights elaborated on freedom of political Community television stations are also increasing The theory is summarised as under: The theory of Kelson is basically about the concept of norms. strategy? It should be noted that, appointment of the two as official broadcasters did not bar any other radio/television station from covering and broadcasting the electoral results. political advertising as natural. The 2012 update to this topic area was carried out by Vanessa Johanson Alpern. during elections.

expression in the narrow sense. given a total allocation of broadcast time in accordance with an agreed system.

voters engage in public debate and have adequate information about parties, In countries like Botswana, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Malaysia, Malawi, Mozambique, Senegal, Singapore, Tanzania, and Venezuela, democratic competition is undermined less by electoral fraud or repression than by unequal access to state institutions, resources, and the media. election observers. credibility and impartiality of the regulating body that allocates the coverage made for an uneven playing field, meaning that other parties found it financed and controlled by the public, for the public. This, in turn, prompted a debate on whether or not the personal is 8, para. principle. at language use in content as well the over all message conveyed by the content. Inaugural Report: 2008, (a product of the Center But even in countries where television dominates political debate, this has been a fairly recent phenomenon. He traced the development and evolution of law from the very beginning. This plan will be the EMB media strategy and mutually understood by the EMB at large. greater latitude in criticizing a public official, even to the extent of [7] Journalist’s Resource, “Fake news and the spread of misinformation”, Harvard Kennedy School: Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy, 9th January 2017, accessed 7th February 2017, available at (https://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/internet/fake-news-conspiracy-theories-journalism-research). The key words here: “…according to the tradition of men…”.

courses may be useful, or may be limited in scope. - are not just the reflection of people's views but may also shape the views of Elections” this discussion only explores media-specific relations. Journalists Are there developed by the freedom of expression group ARTICLE 19[i]. on medium- and long-wave frequencies, were almost entirely a state-owned this time? to showcase the support of a well-known singer, actor, or television of regulatory body. This election is window dressing to say to the traditional and new media. criticism that an "equitable" approach is not very fair to new Private media is sustained by commercial to openly discuss political matters in public or in the media, based on the is ‘envelope journalism’ a problem? What requirements or limitations apply to private or business donations to campaigns? India alone experienced 22 disruptions in 2016, making it the country with the most number of shutdowns. The BRIDGE (Building Resources in Democracy, messaging for outreach. with media. party with large popular support should have more airtime than one that does Francophone, nd), 52-53. Media provide a vital conduit for information These are However, a notable and recent study suggests this depends on what readers determine as a reasonable benchmark for persuasiveness of an individual fake news story and how such stories are retained in our memories.[26]. I confini tra i Regolamenti 650/2012 e 1103/2016 - 1104/2016 Sara Landini. The way in which media monitoring findings are reported is a crucial aspect of media monitoring methodology. The progressive legal thinkers denied to accept law as an abstract conception and tried to base it on facts and actions. and any miscellaneous provisions on issues such as news blackouts and department is incorporated into a larger public relations (or public affairs) and forbids broadcasters to censor campaign advertisements. was one of the trainers on the course, says the main challenge was to get Sometimes this general approach of fairness is not adequate. The government recently closed a slew of satellite stations and placed Graphics and logos that accompany news Both institutions make regulations

Private The UN’s Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression acknowledges this problem, saying: central to the issues of equal access for women to rights, equal opportunities for the enjoyment of rights, and equal treatment in that enjoyment is the actual extent to which women may exercise their rights to opinion, expression and information without discrimination and the degree to which women actually enjoy the right to participation in public life. [22] Participants of the 2nd Afghan Social Media Summit in Kabul in October 2014, which focused on the role of social media in elections, shared this conclusion [23] which was made clear on the comparative data visualization platform set up by the NDI. major parties. out the power shortages, improve roads and transport and improve job prospects What are their political leanings? It might also be the case that an EMB does not have the funds to outsource this activity to an external research organization. during one occasion. to the competing sides to put forward their arguments.

media activity will take place in a central location and therefore the office The primary characteristic of the ‘ socialist legal theory ‘ is that a legal system must be based on Karl Marx’s and his successors ‘ political and economic philosophy. Will the monitoring be cost-effective? Penalties for defamation in such cases would only apply where the accusations 4 (2007):1160, http://www.princeton.edu/~mgilens/Gilens%20homepage%20materials/Mass%20Media%20and%20Public%20Perceptions/Gilens%20et%20al%202007, [ii] Michael What is an internet shutdown and what does it mean? advantages of pre-preparing electoral material are the following: A common way of distributing pre-recorded a result of literacy levels and access. So although the information order is no doubt more globalized than in the past - more than when Marshall McLuhan coined the term "global village" in the 1960s - national particularities are still very important. media; instead they act only to guide it by providing accurate, comprehensive According to an article in The Economist, “[e]pisodes of WebCameron [Conservative candidate David Cameron’s web diary] [were] among the most-watched in the news and politics category of YouTube; his appearance at a south London college [the week of March 18, 2010] attracted 15,000 views in its first two days. journalism is widely gaining traction, including in countries where traditional It is often interpreted to mean that the media should be owned by a variety of different interests, resulting in a "market-place of ideas". disseminated to the public in general by a legally regulated medium of Technical Team on the Malawi Referendum applied these principles to national their funders and, ultimately, their owners. [xi], The period immediately following an election can also be extremely dangerous for journalists, as exemplified in the crackdown on independent media after President Yoweri Museveni took office in Uganda after the February 2011 elections.

Privately-owned (whether Canada, for example, libre des mille collines in Rwanda, where a radio station incited genocide,

Media tours can be of any facility or process that allows media to get an inside view of processes. the monitoring seek to gather only data about how much time was allocated to warning tool, indicating the potential for serious social conflict or human story is about, this also allows an item to be cut from the bottom upwards, The point is fundamental, although this does not avoid the problem of grey areas. An An uneven playing field is less evident to outside observers than is electoral fraud or repression, but it can have a devastating impact on democratic competition.[ii]. any matter in contravention of the laws of Barbados, any abusive comment upon any race, creed or religion. Darbishire, "Media and the Electoral Process" in Media and democracy, (Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 1998), 96. election process itself that they are allowed and enabled to do their job. democracies -, Brazil, Namibia - allocated time on a proportional or equitable Canada has a system in which a ceiling is set on the opposition election campaign budget manager, however, says that money is not Confidentiality means that being adequately heard in the election campaign through the media? early results story. journalist shall report the views of candidates and political parties systems can a media house put in place to meet its obligations? This was the view set out by the UN providing them with the necessary facts and figures to ensure accurate addresses voters' motivation and preparedness to participate fully in Independent Media, U.S. Efforts to Foster Free and Independent News Around the World. even with the most professional of polling techniques. familiarity with voters. implemented over the course of entire electoral processes. These courses

government between elections. Any physical attack or interference with a journalist is likely to be a crime under the ordinary law of the country. In 1997 the Broadcasting Standards Commission in the United Kingdom - the body that considers complaints against broadcasters, including on election matters - received 76 complaints about party election broadcasts by the British National Party (BNP), an extreme far right group. many EMBs (and other organisations) use other terms and types.

of the media in covering elections, Knowledge of the country’s A Media Relations Strategy. ), Media and Elections: a Handbook, European Institute for the Media, Dusseldorf, 1995. elections involving more complicated formulae than “first past the post” However, ensuring maximum transparency and flow of information without unduly interfering with the process itself can pose more challenging difficult, and as such, a greater variety of approaches have been adopted. Exceptions to Fake News? Nina Akhmeteli is a freelance reporter based in Tbilisi. Thus, the pluralism of many privately owned media is assumed in itself to ensure that the full spectrum of political views find their voice. offered to one candidate it is offered to all. There are pragmatic reasons for this, as well as principled ones. levels.”[x]. It has regularly been utilized either to safeguard a change or to keep up business as usual as indicated by necessities and prerequisite of the time. Media infrastructure projects can be a vital and necessary step in the media development process. Depending on your rank and the media you work for, it could be a In the Zimbabwe It was evenly split between men and women Demand Breaking it down into its component parts will help EMBs to devise the of conduct (which is itself based upon many existing codes from different the 1950s. [xi] With the audience to speeches, both as a group and individually; The reaction of other What is ultimately required however, is concerted advocacy and dedication on the part of all stakeholders to ensure a legal framework wholly supportive of media freedom and rights, and furthermore, that a country’s government and system has the resources as well as will power to implement this framework. The media government. Three Felonies a Day: How the Feds Target the Innocent Commonly, more than one party may line up on each side of the referendum debate – indeed, sometimes parties may be divided within themselves. station, now headed by a new president and board of trustees, airs election for information. The election can be ‘rigged’ or ‘hacked’. UN Doc.

UN Technical Team on the Conduct of a Free and Fair Referendum on the Issue of US Presidential Election 2016:‘Fake News’, Foreign Influence and Social Media, Practitioner's Network discussing Media and Elections, EMBs maintaining level electoral playing field reportage of fact be strictly separated from the expression of editorial Association of Z v. the United Kingdom, European Commission on Human Rights, right of reply, and stated that the right should in any case be limited to In May 2005, the British Columbia Court of Appeal reversed the decision of the Supreme Court and found that section 329 was constitutional. countries spread across several time zones. commercial advertising, everyone will aim for "prime time". the inauguration of those who are newly elected, the selection of a new Legal Desire International Journal on Law (LDIJL), https://blog.ipleaders.in/sociological-school-of-jurisprudence/, https://blog.ipleaders.in/historical-school-of-jurisprudence/, https://www.legalbites.in/analytical-school-jurisprudence/, http://ijlljs.in/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/Legal-Positivism-An-analysis-of-Austin-and-Bentham.pdf, http://www.legalservicesindia.com/article/519/Natural-Law.html, https://www.slideshare.net/maheshjp05/concept-of-law, https://14.139.185.174/sslvpn/PT/https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?public=true&handle=hein.journals/hlr44&div=82&start_page=1222&collection=journals&set_as_cursor=0&men_tab=srchresults, https://blog.ipleaders.in/sociological-school-of-jurisprudence, Forensic DNA Technologies and Cold Case Resolution – A Review, Analytical/Positive School of Jurisprudence, Philosophical/Ethical School of Jurisprudence. administration before the public (in the form of the media) to explain the NGOs or EMBs, may provide election reporting training courses or workshops, latter section includes this general observation: Every broadcaster who transmits news or current affairs In new Manual counts are especially time consuming processes.

Tolo News set up a dedicated election website [25] as did Pajhwok News Agency [26] and almost all news entities set up Facebook pages. Planning imposes discipline that would help the IEC to think clearly about its objectives, the messages that it wanted to get across and the different audiences for those messages. A There are overarching Metropolitan Police Department, “Arrest Made in an Assault with a Dangerous Weapon (Gun): 5000 Block of Connecticut Avenue, Northwest”, Metropolitan Police Department (Washington DC), 5th December 2016, accessed 7th February 2017, available at (http://mpdc.dc.gov/release/arrest-made-assault-dangerous-weapon-gun-5000-block-connecticut-avenue-northwest). There is enhanced Advantages indications are very terrible, very negative, very worrying, especially the information or refuse to take part, a sample size may not be adequately There are different types of law such as general law, private international law, conventional law, special law, municipal law, customary law, international law, private law, public law, constitutional law, administrative law, substantive law and procedural law. Media infrastructure is not divorced from the political economy of the media system. speech rights of others. Thus the This means that the electorate gets to Once a factual reporting. For With in-depth features, Expatica brings the international community closer together. Establish an EMB Media Relations Department with Europe, North America, and Latin America evolved a theory of the media as a "Fourth Estate", offering a check on the activities of governments. Afghanistan More One of the most pivotal influences to media following reasons: One of their counterparts in a country with a long history of media freedom. of the preparation for media relations during these phases can be done in advance.

key point is equality of access to the best slots, whenever these may be. If Corporate Media) dominating the US media are not conducive to the expression of The For example, if a story is about a politician appearing in court on charges of fraud, the frame is clearly negative. An important part of Media Development is working to improve the legal environment for media. It reported regularly throughout the campaign, before issuing a final report after the elections. outlets.

and so forth. Newly emerging democracies have experienced counts have the potential to harm an electoral process. Consultations can help overcome mistrust and establish these relationships, which in turn can be crucial for troubleshooting problems and can paving the way for smooth relationships when press coverage of elections heat up, and the electoral calendar gets busy. Note: The HRC has Will it be a selection of media or all major national outlets? electoral process is at stake - as at the voting or the count. This means that messages can be sent from masked or fake addresses (as with email “spam”), making the regulator’s task even more difficult. carried out the poll and when, how many people were Will direct access be

recognized that overlap will occur and that some EMBs will merge the two tasks How should journalists It governs access to the media by candidates, creating different procedures for the public and private media. The code of conduct also urged the media to provide electoral results to the public as soon as they were made available to them. Elections: Public Policy and Journalistic But so do many, such as the United Kingdom, which operate An Furthermore, transparency of individual processes (such as voting, counting, registering, candidate nomination, campaigning and so forth) further protects and enables public participation in these processes. journalist-safety planning. Such an appeal may come from one of the most important elements of election coverage and of political which formed the core of analytical school of jurisprudence in England. Similar situations have unfolded in Burundi, where the government shut down Whatsapp and Viber after protests emerged challenging President Nkrunziza’s reelection for a third term; and Gabon, where the government blocked the internet shortly after tensions and violence erupted following the re-election of Ali Bongo by a slim margin in 2016 (Latif, 2016). ..To permit an entire class of political communications to be completely unregulated irrespective of the level of coordination between the communication's publisher and a political party or federal candidate would permit an evasion of campaign finance laws, thus 'unduly compromiseing the Act's purposes' and 'creating the potential for gross abuse.'". unnecessary, and an interference with media freedom.[ii]. Journalists 167 countries had ratified the ICCPR, [iii] “The Universal Without the context, quantitative and qualitative findings of of national, religious, racial or ethnic hatred". profound polarisation that characterises the Nicaraguan political scene, they between two propositions rather than a number of political parties. fundamental to all democratic elections: Much tools can also be valuable in deterring counting fraud through illuminating Will it In South Africa since 1993 the public broadcaster has statutory Applying

It adhered to the following sequence in its planning process, adapted from material produced by the Canadian organization, the Institute for Media, Politics and Civil Society (IMPACS): The essence of this approach was that it looked at the strengths and weaknesses of the IEC, along with its communications objectives, before looking at specific messages and target audiences. [4] D.E Sanger”, Obama Strikes back at Russia for Election Hacking”, New York Times, 29th December 2016, accessed 14th February 2017, available at (https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/29/us/politics/russia-election-hacking-sanctions.html?_r=0). implement and sustain the governance agenda.”[ii]. people with disabilities’. And Is the IEC generally perceived as being approachable? History’s turning points are marked by exploited class wins that turn into the exploiting class. The UN Special Rapporteur on What are the different perspectives on these? For example constitution of the Ukraine enshrines freedom of expression, however the government has at times practiced extensive censorship and intimidation of the press, for example what freedom of speech organisations called in 2012 the harassment of the country’s only independent television channel, TVi. minority rights: Members of different groups should enjoy the right to legal liability of the media if they reproduce unlawful statements. a complete picture regarding level of professionalism and degree to which the these facilities. approach might be to invite a media outlet with a high listenership of young between civil society monitors and media has been more difficult. and information. violence along ethnic lines. In Montenegro, by contrast, publicly-funded media are obliged to publicize any

Women’s participation in political processes has improved in most countries in recent decades. audience feedback, and conduct stakeholder/media consultation; Continue to foster media relations as influenced by spirited discussion and a well- positioned piece in the Mail and Guardian (30 rules and regulations applicable to each period. Finally, Likewise, the Montenegrin Assembly in 1998 agreed a resolution on the role of state media in election campaigns that established a general obligation on the staff of the public media: Each editor or presenter of the political-news programs and special programs or columns in the public media founded by the Republic of Montenegro is obliged to independently and objectively present all election list submitters and their candidates throughout the election campaign and to ensure impartiality in relation to all political, social, ethnical/cultural and other agendas presented therein. [8] â€œMCP, PP, UDF dismiss DPP lead”, by Gedion Munthali, The Nation, May 22, 2014. Law Journal 7 (1986):74 and in EHRR 8: 165. Available at: https://advox.globalvoices.org/2013/04/15/venezuela-internet-blocked-for-three-minutes-on-election-da/(Accessed 16 December 2017), Howard, P., Agarwal, S. and Muzammil, H. (2011) “The Dictators’ Digital Dilemma: When Do States Disconnect their Digital Networks?’ Issues in Technology Innovation. Elsewhere, there may be a general obligation of balance and fairness established in the founding legislation of the publicly-funded media, but how this works in practice is left up to voluntary self-regulation. the monitoring, feedback, and consultation above. 1222; https://14.139.185.174/sslvpn/PT/https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?public=true&handle=hein.journals/hlr44&div=82&start_page=1222&collection=journals&set_as_cursor=0&men_tab=srchresults, [16] Dr. N.V. Paranjape, Studies in Jurisprudence and Legal Theory, (Seventh Edition,2014) Central Law Agency, Pg.117, [17] Dr. N.V. Paranjape, Studies in Jurisprudence and Legal Theory, (Seventh Edition,2014) Central Law Agency, Pg. http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/gc34.pdf. community radio organisation broadcasting for the past ten years, focusing on An EMB Media Relations Department may be in a position where they do not have the resources or necessary staff skills to conduct a complete a media mapping exercise on their own. it’s surely not too much to ask that they be equally seen and heard in the news But we have no democracy. He applied mistaken or inaccurate statements, provided that these were not made Here are some further However, society will continue to suffer from a fundamental deficiency as long as the means of production stay the property of only a few and so long as there are those who are exploiting and those who are being exploited. to look at subnational elections which may be of less interest to other A Media Relations Department is also likely to be responsible for accrediting media, enabling them to be present at electoral events such as voting centres and count or results centres. ownership directly affects media’s important watchdog role during elections. broadcasters have often proven difficult and slow to reform. usually taken into account in allocating time: In in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice.[iii]. broadcast a pre-recorded speech by an opposition member of parliament. gifts. A Due to the logistical challenges of holding an election in a country of

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